Vulnerability Of Children Contributing Factors Health And Social Care Essay

Vulnerability Of Children Contributing Factors Health And Social Care Essay The purpose of this chapter is to establish an understanding of the state of children in South Africa, to understand the contributing factors to their vulnerability affecting their quality of life on a multi-dimensional level, and the impact of HIV and AIDS as one of the primary contributors to childrens vulnerability. In light of the information provided within this chapter, the full extent of the basic needs of children in South Africa could provide a foundation for understanding the churchs past successes and failures in order to promote a possible urgent consideration of new approaches. the state of children There is an urgent call for the involvement of faith-based organisations (FBO, like the church), non-governmental organisations (NGO) and local governments to assist in addressing the needs of vulnerable children (Blackman, 2007; Musa, 2005; Olsen, Knight Foster, 2006; Stephenson, Gourley, Miles, 2004). This urgent call stems is in light of the poor quality of life for these children, as well as the contributing factor of the HIV and AIDS pandemic. The church and other FBOs have been recognised by various authors and organisations in their partnership and role in community-based organisations (CBO) (Hoff, 1998; Olson, Messinger, Sutherland Astone, 2005; Olson, Knight Foster, 2006; Unruh Sider, 2005). The role of churches is widely recognised as a change agent whose involvement goes beyond just the here and now. But Unruh and Sider (2005) as well as Mitchell (2001) argue that churches, who are already involved in community development as their approach to social ministries, are not as effective as they ought to be and call for the urgent consideration of their approaches, underlying perspectives and motives. This urges the church to comprehend what the specific needs of orphaned and vulnerable children are, and to consider its effectiveness and its perspectives on how these needs can be addressed. Within the recommended community development response for the church as outlined by various authors (August, 1999; Dreyer, 2004; Du Toit, 2002; Liebenberg, 1996; Myers, 1999; Myers, 2006 and Vilanculo, 1998), there is an urgent call to be needs-based that is developed through the various methods and principles such a response involves. It is therefore essential to comprehend the general state of children, as the causes of vulnerability amongst children can only be understood when their realities are explained and projected. Only within the understanding of their vulnerability and contributing factors, can childrens needs be effectively met and thereby their quality of life improved. There are various statistical estimates and projections on the realities of children, concerning the numbers of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in South Africa. Within these various sources, discrepancies were identified between the different sources. The data include projections with regard to HIV prevalence, orphanhood, AIDS related deaths and even total populations. These discrepancies were compared and discussed within the work of Dorrington et al. (2006:27) for the year 2005. No actual data on the true state of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) were found or concluded as the available statistical data are all projections. Dorrington et al. (2006:17) reaffirm the use of the ASSA2003 Model, but encourage comparison with other projections. Bray (2003:44) raises further concerns regarding the methods used to calculate the estimates and projections in respect of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC), but Bray is even more concerned with what one does with these projections and calls for the careful use of such projected data. Her concerns are based on the labelling of the children as well as the intended outcomes of interventions and the nature thereof. No source could however be found that denies the estimates and projections of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC). For this reason, only statistical data from four authoritative sources, due to their global involvement, leadership and advocacy in this regard ASSA2003 Model (University of Cape Town), Statistics South Africa, UNAIDS and UNICEF will be referred to in considering the regional and national data. The sources used in this study can be accepted as authentic and trustworthy due to the sources national and international activism for children and research within this field of study. Due to the trend in the past ten years of projected figures fluctuating to an unreliable extent, these projections will be handled with great caution. It also needs to be stressed that all projections and statistics provided here are estimates only. The statistical data provided within this study are included merely for the understanding of the realities children are facing and the contribution of these circumstances to the vulnerability of children. Statistical sources from primarily the past eight years (2001 2009) will be quoted and referred to, and all other sources (older than four years and other than ASSA, Stats SA, UNAIDS and UNICEF) will be weighed against these to determine the autonomy of their arguments and statements. 2.2.1 Defining orphans and vulnerable children In order to comprehend the reality of vulnerable children within the context of this study, a clear understanding of the two terms orphans and vulnerable children is needed. Skinner et al., (2006:620) refers to the importance of considering the situation of children orphaned by AIDS, but emphasizes that by looking at orphans affected by AIDS only, does not encompass the full scale of the reality of children, since the HIV pandemic as well as surrounding poverty are creating a context in which large numbers of children are made vulnerable. It needs to be stated clearly that within the understanding of the reality of children and interventions to assist them, it is acknowledged that HIV and AIDS are a major contributor, but not the primary cause or contributor to the vulnerability of children. HIV and AIDS feature as prominent factors contributing to the vulnerability of children but it cannot be separated from other contributing factors. Orphans According to Skinner et al. (2006:620) the most accepted definition of an orphan is a child who has lost one or both parents through death But this definition could also include loss of parents through desertion or if the parents are unable or unwilling to provide care. They refer in most cases to the absent parent as being the father (Skinner et al., 2006:620). Within the literature consulted, the age of the child includes from birth and varies up to between 15 and 21, depending on the context and the level of dependency on care-givers. According to Skinner et al., (2006:620), within the orphan grouping, levels of vulnerability are discerned by an understanding of the direct environment of these children. These environmental understandings are used to understand these orphans within an implicit classification system, such as the nature of their caregivers i.e., extended families, foster parents, community caregivers, child-headed households and institutional care, the level of additional assistance required, and between maternal, paternal and double orphans (2006:620). Various authors have raised their concerns with regard to stigmatizations when defining an orphan within a group such as AIDS-orphans; or their level of vulnerability within their environmental understanding such as the term OVC (Engle, 2008:9; Save the Children, 2007:29; Skinner et al., 2006:620; Smart, 2003:4). Care must therefore be taken with how any term relating to orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) is used as they become objectified or targets for stigma and segregation which further contributes to their vulnerability. Vulnerable Children Vulnerability is not an absolute state because there are degrees of vulnerability which depend on the situation of the child. According to Skinner et al. (2006:620) there are a number of contributing factors to a childs vulnerability and each of these adds to the cumulative load that the child carries. For them, the extent of the crisis and additional problems associated with it also affect the impact on the child (2006:620). Vulnerability is a very complex concept to define and very often the understanding thereof is limited to the circumstance of the child. According to Smart, (2003:4) the concept of vulnerability is not only restricted to individuals, such as children, but is often used to refer to households as well. There does seem to be a link between poverty and vulnerability suggesting that policies and interventions to improve vulnerability among the poor in general, will also have a positive impact on disadvantaged orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) (Smart, 2003:4). The South African Department of Social Development, defines a vulnerable child as a child whose survival, care, protection or development may be compromised due to a particular condition, situation or circumstance and which prevents the fulfilment of his or her rights (2005:5). These conditions could be identified by the following criteria according to Department of Social Development (2005:13), Engle (2008:10) and Skinner et al., (2006:623): A child who is below the age of 18, and meets one or more of the following criteria, is made vulnerable by it as it influences their quality of life: Has a chronically ill parent/caregiver (regardless of whether the parent/caregiver lives in the same household as the child), or Lives in a household where in the past 12 months at least one adult died and was sick for 3 of the 12 months before he/she died, or Lives in a household where at least one adult was seriously ill for at least 3 months in the past 12 months, or Living with very old and frail caregivers, or Lives in a household that receives and cares for orphans, or Lives outside of family care (i.e., lives in an institution or on the streets), Is born of a teenage or single mother; Is abused or ill-treated by a step-parent or relatives; Is living with a parent or an adult who lacks income-generating opportunities; Has lost one or both parents; Children whose survival, well-being or development is impacted by HIV or AIDS; Any physical or mental handicap; or any other long-term difficulty that would make it difficult for the child to function independently Skinner et al., (2006:623). These indicators could include the following constantly present signs: insufficient nutrition, signs of hunger, signs of insufficient sleep, poor hygiene or cannot engage in personal care and does not have clothing or clothing is dirty or damaged (Skinner et al., 2006:623). Illness, either HIV or other major illness; and emotional or psychological problems (Skinner et al., 2006:623); According to them these indicators could include apathy or helplessness that might show in the child as being unhappy, dull, being miserable or lack of motivation, neglect of schoolwork, irregular attendance of school or not performing well at school, low school enrolment rates, high repetition rates, and/or high drop out rates (2006:623). Low immunisation and limited or no access to health services, malnutrition, and a high burden of disease; Abuse at emotional, physical or sexual level; use of drugs (e.g., glue, alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana or crack) and not receiving adequate care (Skinner et al., 2006:623) particularly love, guidance and support; intra-household neglect when compared to other children in the household (2006:623). At a higher risk than their local peers of experiencing infant, child and adolescent mortality; Family and community abuse and maltreatment (harassment and violence); Economic and sexual exploitation, due to lack of care and protection It can be concluded, that even though the HIV and AIDS pandemic is evident as a major contributor and the presence of it will be visible in almost every aspect of being vulnerable; these as well as other factors contributing to vulnerability, must be acknowledged and considered within the wider context of other children. HIV and AIDS is not the only contributor to the problem of orphanhood and vulnerability. Other factors like poverty, wars, abuse, non-HIV related illnesses and natural and unnatural deaths, contribute significantly to the problem of orphanhood and vulnerability amongst children (Simbayi, Kleintjies, Ngomane, Tabane, Mfecane Davids, 2006:20). It is thus important that HIV and orphan interventions attend to the needs of all children, rather than focussing solely on those children affected by HIV/AIDS. 2.2 The SOCIAL STATe OF CHILDREN in SOUTH AFRICA South Africa is being considered as a developing country and an inspiration for the African Renaissance and humanitarian development. With South Africa supposable having the worlds best Constitution and Bill of Rights (Dinokeng, 2009:9), one would expect a reflection thereof in the reality of the lives of the children of South Africa. The National picture the general state of South Africas children The following data are year specific, but reflects the vulnerability of children in South Africa which is the primary focus of the inclusion of this data in this study. In 2006, there were 18.2 million children in South Africa and they constituted 38% of the countrys population, of which 38% were between 6 and 12 years, 34% being younger than 6 years and 28% were teenagers (13 17 years old) (Proudlock, Dutschke, Jamieson, Monson Smith, 2008:64). The livelihood-realities of South African children From all the children in South Africa, in 2006 an estimated 12.3 million or 68% of them lived in households with an income of less than R1 200 per month (Proudlock et al., 2008:63). A further 2.8 million or 16% of all children were living in households across South Africa where children were reported as hungry (sometimes, often or always) because there was not enough food (Proudlock et al., 2008:63; Stats SA, 2006:41). An estimated 10 million or 54% of South Africas children lived in rural areas according to research done in 2004. The Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces were home to about 74% of all rural children in South Africa of which Limpopo was proportionally the most rural province, where only 12% of children lived in urban areas. In the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces, there is more of an equal split between children living in urban and rural areas. In Gauteng there were 96% and in the Western Cape 87% of the children urban-based. It is a general practice that adults living in rural areas, often move to urban areas in search of work, while their children remain in the rural areas and are cared for by the extended family. There was an indication that babies younger than one year were more likely to be living in urban areas than older children, which suggests that babies born in urban areas initially remain with their mothers (Proudlock et al., 2008:87). The number of children living in informal housing (backyard dwellings or shacks in informal settlements) increased from 2.3 million in 2002, to 2.6 million in 2006 and also accounted for 12% of all South African children (Proudlock et al., 2008:86). Children living in formal areas are more likely than those living in informal or traditional dwellings to have basic services on site. They are also more likely to be closer to facilities like schools, libraries, clinics and hospitals than those living in informal settlements or rural areas. Proudlock et al. (2008:90) reflects on children living in informal settlements as being more exposed to hazards such as shack fires and paraffin poisoning. For them, childrens rights to adequate housing means that they should not have to live in informal dwellings (2008:86). Overcrowding is related to a shortage of housing and also to the size of houses being built. In 2006, 5.2 million or 28% of the total child population lived in overcrowded households (Proudlock et al., 2008:90; Stats SA, 2006:41). For Proudlock et al. (2008:90), Overcrowding is a problem because it can undermine childrens needs and rights, and refer to the right to privacy, and health as communicable diseases spread more easily in overcrowded conditions. For them, children in crowded households may struggle to negotiate space for their own activities. These children may also have less access to basic services such as water and electricity (Proudlock et al., 2008:90). Good sanitation is vital for healthy childhood as there are a number of negative consequences for children who are unable to access proper toilets. It is very difficult to maintain good hygiene without water and toilets children are exposed to worms, bacterial infection which compromises nutrition. A lack of adequate sanitation also undermines human dignity (Proudlock et al., 2008:91). In 2006, only 9.9 million, or 55% of South Africas children had access to adequate toilet facilities and 11 million or 61% of South Africas children had access to drinking water on site (Proudlock et al., 2008:91). In 2006, 10.6 million or 96% of all children of school-going age (7 17 years) were attending some form of school or educational facility. These figures however, are not an indication of the regularity of childrens school attendance; the quality of teaching and learning in schools, or about repetition and throughput rates (Proudlock et al., 2008:74; Stats SA, 2006:9). A reason for concern is the number of children who did not attend an educational facility, as according to Proudlock et al., (2008:74) and Stats SA, (2006:9), in 2006 there were about 447,000 children of school-going age that were not attending an educational facility, of which 337,000 were children aged 13 17. Every year there are 20 000 babies stillborn and a further 22 000 babies die before they are a month old (28 days), which accounted for 30% of all child deaths in 2006 (UNICEF, 2008:6). The mortality data for 2006 showed that the highest number of deaths in the whole population occurred in the 0 4 years age group of which the under five year mortality rate (U5MR) increased from 40 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2001 to 72 per 1,000 live births in 2005. The infant mortality rate (IMR) increased from 29 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2001 to 43 per 1,000 live births in 2005 (Proudlock et al., 2008:78;). It is estimated that one in every 17 children dies before the age of 5 (UNICEF, 2008:6). According to Proudlock et al., (2008:80) the leading causes of death in children under five may be divided into four categories: Complications during and shortly after birth According to them (2008:80), the leading causes of death among children younger than 15 years (for 2000 to 2005) are related to perinatal disorders (disorders that occur in the period of late pregnancy to seven days after birth), which means that newborn children and infants under one year are particularly susceptible to diseases. Respiratory and cardiovascular disorders remain the primary cause of death in the perinatal period and, since 2002, it is the highest specific category of death among children under 15 years. By the end of 2003, the perinatal mortality rate was 35.8 per 1,000 for all deliveries, and 26.4 per 1,000 for all infants weighing more than 1,000 grams (Proudlock et al., 2008:80). HIV-related illnesses HIV/AIDS remains the biggest threat to child survival as the HIV- and AIDS-pandemic continues to devastate the well-being and survival of children (Proudlock et al., 2008:80). Diseases directly related to poverty (for example intestinal infectious diseases and malnutrition) Gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases have shown a decline in incidence since 1997, and malnutrition as a cause of death, has halved between 2000 and 2005 (Proudlock et al., 2008:80). Trauma Unnatural causes of death that account for trauma are classified under unspecified unnatural causes, which makes up 7% of child deaths in 2005 (Proudlock et al., 2008:80). It was estimated for 2007, that for every 100,000 people, 41 were raped (of which 40% were children). This statistic is accepted as under-estimated by UNICEF and states that under-reporting of crime is common, especially when it involves people from the same family or community (2008:7). In the majority of crimes that happen within social or domestic settings, the perpetrators and the victims know each other they are family or friends (UNICEF, 2008:7). HIV and AIDS regional data South- Africa According to Smart (2003:7) the HIV- and AIDS-pandemic can be illustrated as a succession of three waves. The first wave is HIV infections, and it is followed some years later by the second wave of AIDS illness and death. This in turn, is followed by the third wave of children being orphaned by HIV and AIDS, with its impact at multiple levels (2003:7). But according to UNICEF (2004a:4) HIV and AIDS start to affect a child early in a parents illness, as children and young people in an HIV and AIDS-affected household begin to suffer long before a parent or caregiver dies, due to the effects resulting in household income that plummets, interrupted schooling and even total fall-out, either to care for a sick parent or to earn money. The impact thereof continues through the course of the illness, as well as throughout the childs development well after the parents death. Various survival strategies are pursued, such as eating less and selling assets, which are contributing to and intensifying the vulnerability of these households. For UNICEF, Children who are deprived of the guidance and protection of their primary caregivers are more vulnerable to health risks, violence, exploitation, and discrimination (2004a:4). According to UNICEF (2004a:3) children affected by HIV and AIDS are not only affected by orphanhood, but they are also made vulnerable when they have an ill parent, are living in poor households that have taken in orphans, are discriminated against because of a family members HIV status, or who have HIV themselves. For then, HIV and AIDS has joined a host of other factors and includes extreme poverty, conflict, and exploitation, which impose additional burdens on societys youngest and most vulnerable members (2004a:3). It is believed that due to the discrepancies in data older than 2005, there was a global under-estimation of the impact of HIV and AIDS pandemic in South Africa, to such an extent that South Africa was not considered to be a country facing the biggest impact of this pandemic, as compared to neighbouring countries like Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. Only in recent literature (from ASSA, UNAIDS, UNICEF and World Bank) dated from 2005, it was realized that South Africa will have the biggest impact of HIV and AIDS thus having the biggest burden of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) due to this pandemic. In 2007, the total South African population was 47.8 million people, of which 18.2 million where children under the age of 17 years (Proudlock et al., 2008:82; UNICEF, 2008:5). In the same year, it was estimated that 5.7 million South Africans were living with HIV, making South Africa the largest pandemic in the world (UNICEF, 2008:7 something not previously considered (UNAIDS/WHO, 2007:16; UNICEF, 2008:7). Women, especially those in their child bearing years, bear the biggest proportion of the HIV infection and a third of pregnant women are estimated to be HIV-positive (UNICEF, 2008:2). The HIV data from antenatal clinics in South Africa suggest that the countrys pandemic might be stabilizing, but there is no evidence yet of major changes in HIV-related behaviour (UNAIDS/WHO, 2007:12). By 2006, 294,000 children under the age of 15 years of age were living with HIV in South Africa (ASSA, 2005:n.p.; Proudlock et al., 2008:82) and the majority of them have been infected through mother-to-child transmission and therefore child prevalence among infants is largely influenced by the HIV prevalence of pregnant women and the interventions to prevent mother-to-child transmission (ASSA, 2005:n.p.; Proudlock et al., 2008:84). The highest prevalence amongst these children was in KwaZulu-Natal with 3.2%; Mpumalanga and the Free State with 2.6%; and Gauteng with 2.5 % (ASSA, 2005:n.p; Proudlock et al., 2008:84). The estimates from the ASSA2003 model further suggested that an overall prevalence of 1.2% in 2000 has doubled to 2.1% in 2006 for children under the age of 18 years (ASSA, 2005:n.p.; Proudlock et al., 2008:63). According to UNICEF (2008:24), life expectancy has plummeted by 15 years, from age 65 in 1996 to age 50 in 2005 and 1,000 people die every day as a result of AIDS-related illnesses.. In 2006, approximately 69% of children and adults with advanced HIV infection were receiving antiretroviral treatment (ART) (UNICEF, 2008:24) while still between 270 000 and 420 000 people died of AIDS related illnesses in 2006 (UNAIDS/WHO, 2008:7). KwaZulu-Natal had the highest number of deaths (15,209) due to AIDS related illnesses, as well as the second highest number (6,378) of children on ART in that year. Gauteng had the second highest number of child deaths due to AIDS related illnesses, but in the same year it had the highest number of children on ART (6,992) (ASSA, 2005:n.p.; Proudlock et al., 2008:85). According to Proudlock et al., (2008:84), the HIV-pandemic has progressed at a rapid pace over the last decade, and the necessary health services to address the needs of HIV infected children, have not been put in place. This has caused children to not be able to access the life-saving and urgently needed antiretroviral treatment (ART). Children in the path of HIV and AIDS orphans With a large number of factors already mentioned that are contributing to the vulnerability of children, the impact of HIV and AIDS can be expected to be another big contributing factor. In South Africa the number of orphans has been increasing slowly, and as a result has attracted relatively little public attention. In years to come however, the number of orphans is likely to rise rapidly as AIDS mortality increases (Johnson Dorrington, 2001:1). In 2001 they (2001:5) considered South Africas AIDS pandemic as still in its early stages, relative to other African countries, as South Africa has yet to experience the levels of orphanhood observed elsewhere in Africa. This is because there are more people infected with HIV in South Africa than in any other African Country, and it is therefore quite possible that the country will ultimately have more orphans due to AIDS related causes, than any other country on the African continent (Johnson Dorrington, 2001:5). According to UNICEF (2008:24), of all the countries affected by HIV and AIDS, South Africa has the most crushing burden, as a result of having the worlds highest number of HIV infected people. According to Proudlock et. al (2008:66), in 2006, there were 3.7 million total orphans this is equal to 21% of all children in South Africa with 619 000, or 3% of all orphans documented to be maternal orphans, 668 000, or 4 % of all orphans documented to be double orphans and 2.4 million orphans, or 14% of all orphans documented to be paternal orphans. According to them, the number of paternal orphans is this high because of the higher mortality rates of men in South Africa, as well as the frequent absence of fathers in childrens lives (Proudlock et al., 2008:66). Per province, the estimates for 2006 were as follows: KwaZulu-Natal with 978 000 orphans. Eastern Cape 816 000 orphans Limpopo 481 000 orphans Gauteng 392 000 orphans Mpumalanga 286 000 orphans Free State 284 000 orphans North West 281 000 orphans Western Cape 198 000 orphans Northern Cape 52 000 orphans (Proudlock et al., 2008:66) There has been an increase in the number of orphans in the past five years, and according to Proudlock et. al (2008:66) there were approximately 750,000 more children living as orphans in 2006 than in 2002 and consider this increase in light of the HIV- and AIDS-pandemic (2008:66). Further to this, they state that there where about 122,000 children living in an estimated 60,000 child-headed households across South Africa (2008:68). Of these, 89% were located in the following three provinces: Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Eastern Cape (Proudlock et al., 2008:68). Yearly an average of 1.1 million babies are born, of which 300,000 were born to HIV-positive mothers and an estimated 78,000 of these babies run the risk of getting infected if nothing is done to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Half of these children die before they reach two years of age (UNICEF, 2008:13). Orphan projections As mentioned, the HIV- and AIDS-pandemic needs to be understood in terms of a series of waves Smart (2003:7). In South Africa, the first of these waves represented new HIV infections which according to Johnson and Dorrington (2001:5) peaked in 1998 at about 930 000 infections per year. This was followed by the second wave of the total number of infections, which was estimated to peak in 2006 at 7.7 million infections (2001:5). The third wave being AIDS deaths, is expected to peak in 2010 with about 800 000 (2001:5 deaths per year, which will lead to the fourth wave being AIDS related orphans. Johnson and Dorrington (2001:4) estimates this wave to peak at 3.7 million maternal orphans (children under the age of 18 years) (2001:13) and 4.71 million paternal orphans (children under the age of 18 years) in 2015, (2001:14) while the total number of children having lost one or both parents is expected to reach its highest level in 2014, at 5.67 million (2001:14). Johnson and Dorrington estimates that in 2015, these orphans (children under the age of 18 years and having lost one or both parents) would be 33% of the total child population, of which 18% would have lost a mother (maternal orphan) and 28% would have lost their father (paternal orphan) and 11% would have lost both their parents (double orphans). They further estimate to remain at these high levels for an expected 15 20 years, due to the general consideration that if a child lost one parent due to AIDS related illnesses, it is most likely for the other parent to also die of AIDS related illnesses, to the extent that by 2020 a total of 40% of all orphans would be considered double orphans (Johnson Dorrington, 2001:14). Giese and Meintjies (2004:2), Johnson and Dorrington (2001:22) call for these projections to be understood as merely predictions in the absence of any major treatment intervention or behaviour changes. Johnson and Dorrington (2001:ii) also states that within these projected orphan estimates, one needs to consider that firstly, relatively few orphaned children are likely to be HIV positive, as most HIV positive orphans do not survive for long enough to constitute a significant proportion of the orphan population. Secondly, the rate of orphanhood is likely to be the highest in the black African population group amongst poor socio-economic groups (2001:ii). Con

Metacognitive Awareness Of Reading Strategies And Critical Reading

Metacognitive Awareness Of Reading Strategies And Critical Reading Researchers believe that awareness and monitoring of ones comprehension processes are critically important for skilled reading. Such awareness and monitoring processes are often referred to as metacognition. Recent researches show that metacognitive strategies differentiate between effective and ineffective learners i.e. the more a student knows about how he learns, the better he will learn. This study was designed to investigate the relationship between metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and critical reading ability of the students. To this end, 113 third/forth year Iranian college students majoring in English translation/literature, aged around 21-36 were selected to participate in this study. They took part in a Nelson test of proficiency, and a critical reading comprehension test. They also completed a questionnaire, namely Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI). Data analysis through Pearson Correlation Coefficient formula showed that there is a significant relationship between the students metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and their critical reading ability. The findings can have implications for EFL learners and teachers in developing an authentic, interactive and learner- centered environment in their reading classes. Key words: Learning strategies, Metacognition, Metacognitive awareness of reading strategies, Critical reading 1. Introduction The recent years have witnessed an increasing interest in developing critical thinking skills of students in order to improve their thinking and learning abilities and help them to succeed in their educational goals. Improving students critical thinking skills will help students: a) improve their thinking about their course work b) use sound thinking on tests, assignments, and projects in their courses c) have the strategic, analytical, problem solving, and decision-making skills they need when they are at college d) have the strategic, analytical, problem solving, and decision-making skills they need when they move to the workplace. The term critical thinking when used by educators has varied meanings in different contexts-whether in formal logic courses, where it has a precise meaning; when applied to arguments or in casual discussions in a faculty lounge about students struggles to grasp the course content, where the term is used more loosely to simply mean good thinking (Pierce, 2005). Before proceeding any further, an account will be provided as how critical thinking has been defined in literature: As stated by Thomson (1996), the critical thinking tradition, which derives from both philosophy and education, originates in the USA. Some of its foremost American proponents were John Dewey, Edward Glaser, and Steven Norris; in Britain, the name most closely associated with critical thinking is that of Alec Fisher. In Learning to Think: Disciplinary Perspectives (2002), Janet Donald (quoted in Keller 2008) presents a variety of approaches to thinking based on the work of different academic disciplines. She provides a working model of thinking processes in higher education in which she describes a perspective on different methods of inquiry. The working model offers a set of procedures followed by most disciplines, including: description, selection, representation, inference, synthesis, and verification. Under each topic on this inventory, then, she lists subtopics indicating their relation to the diverse inquiry methods she previously connected to academic areas. In a later summary of the most important thinking processes used generally across disciplines, she lists separately Identify the context and State assumptions, then reduces her previous set of common procedures to those of selection, representation, and synthesis. In Maclellan and Soden (2001, quoted in Keller 2008), we see the following set of critical thinking skills: a) unpacking concepts-ability to unpack or break down ideas, concepts or theories; b) recognizing contradictions-differentiating between viewpoints and counterarguments; c) development-explaining a phenomenon, joining ideas together to form lines of arguments; d) providing evidence-supporting or justifying assertions; e) examining implications of evidence-generating hypotheses about consequences or examining the relationships between key factors; f) alternative interpretation-questioning or challenging an interpretation of the evidence and offering an alternative. After the above review on what critical thinking is, now we turn to critical reading. A major issue in education today is the concern about students ability to read critically and to evaluate the material. Critical reading is taught as a sub-skill of comprehension with appropriate exercises. Critical reading enjoys several features which make it appear rooted in critical thinking. Among the features we can mention the followings listed by students counseling service of Salisbury University: a. previewing: Learning about a text before really reading it. b. contextualizing: Placing a text in its historical, biographical, and cultural contexts. c. questioning to understand and remember: Asking questions about the content. d. reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values: Examining your personal responses. e. outlining and summarizing: Identifying the main ideas and restating them in your own words. f. evaluating an argument: Testing the logic of a text as well as its credibility and emotional impact. g. comparing and contrasting related readings: Exploring likenesses and differences between texts to understand them better. Furthermore, Burmeister (1986, qtd in Cherney 1986) defines critical-creative reading and thinking as requiring the skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation. He adds that such cognitive abilities require readers or thinkers to reason using techniques of formal logic or at least to be consciously aware of the thought processes they are using. Analysis, according to Burmeister, requires the examination of parts of the whole; synthesis is the act of combining or unifying elements into a coherent whole and evaluation requires the establishment of standards and also a judgment as to the goodness of fit of the idea. Burmeister considers evaluation to be the highest level of the cognitive domain. (p.256) The researchers assume that metacognitive strategies are among the strategies which can foster critical thinking and hence reading. However, it sounds reasonable to ask why such a relationship is felt. To answer this question an attempt will be made to clarify metacognitive strategies. Sheorey and Mokhtari (2001) state that many studies recognize the role of meta-cognitive awareness in reading comprehension, whether one is reading in the native language or a second language. Indeed, the consensus view is that strategic awareness and monitoring of the comprehension process are critically important aspects of skilled reading. Such awareness and monitoring is often referred to in the literature as meta-cognition, which can be thought of as the knowledge of the readers cognition relative to the reading process and the self-control mechanisms they use to monitor and enhance comprehension. Auerbach and Paxton (1997) and Carrell et al. (1989), for example, consider meta-cognitive awareness-planning and consciously executing appropriate actions to achieve a particular goal-to be a critical element of proficient, strategic reading. Such meta-cognition, according to Auerbach and Paxton (1997), entails knowledge of strategies for processing texts, the ability to monitor compr ehension, and the ability to adjust strategies as needed (pp. 240-41). Furthermore, Taylor (1999) defines meta-cognition as an appreciation of what one already knows, together with a correct apprehension of the learning task and what knowledge and skills it requires, combined with the ability to make correct inferences about how to apply ones strategic knowledge to a particular situation, and to do so efficiently and reliably. (p.126) To increase their metacognitive abilities, students need to possess and be aware of three kinds of content knowledge: declarative, procedural, and conditional. Declarative knowledge is the factual information that one knows; it can be declared-spoken or written. An example is to know the formula for calculating momentum in a physics class (momentum = mass times velocity). Procedural knowledge is knowledge of how to do something, of how to perform the steps in a process; for example, knowing the mass of an object and its rate of speed and how to do the calculation. Conditional knowledge is knowledge about when to use a procedure, skill, or strategy and when not to use it; why a procedure works and under what conditions; and why one procedure is better than another. For example, students need to recognize that an exam word problem requires the calculation of momentum as part of its solution. (Paris, Cross and Lipson, 1984. qtd. in Pressley 2002). This notion of three kinds of knowledge applies to learning strategies as well as course content. When they study, students need the declarative knowledge that (1) all reading assignments are not alike; for example, that a history textbook chapter deals with factual information differs from a primary historical document, which is different from an article interpreting or analyzing that document. They need to know that stories and novels differ from arguments. Furthermore, they need to know that there are different kinds of note taking strategies useful for annotating these different types of texts. And (2) students need to know how to actually write different kinds of notes (procedural knowledge), and (3) they need to know when to apply these kinds of notes when they study (conditional knowledge). Knowledge of study strategies is among the kinds of meta-cognitive knowledge, and it too requires awareness of all three kinds of knowledge (Pierce, 2003). Many of the current studies recognize the role of awareness in reading comprehension. Reading strategies are of interest for the way readers use them to manage their interaction with the written text and how these strategies are related to text comprehension (Rigney, 1978). Reading in second language reading suggests that strategies improve reading comprehension. Reading strategies indicate how readers conceive a task, how they make sense of what they read and what they do when reading comprehension is difficult (Singhal, 2001). Indeed researchers agree that strategic awareness and monitoring of the comprehension process are critically important aspects of skilled reading. Such awareness and monitoring is often referred to in the literature as metacognition, which is used to monitor and enhance reading comprehension (Pressley and Afflerbach, 1995; Alexander and Jetton, 2000; Pressley, 2000). Recent researchers (Cohen, 1998, Anderson, 2002, Santana, 2003) show that the strategies that mark the true differences between effective and ineffective learners are the metacognitive strategies. In spite of the fact that many of the previous studies have obtained information about learners strategies and reading process, few of them have examined readers metacognitive awareness of reading strategies ( Singhal, 2001). Considering the important role of metacognitive reading strategies in reading comprehension with suspicious eye, this study is designed to investigate the relationship between metacognitive awareness reading strategies and critical reading ability and to view the notions of meta-cognitive awareness strategies and critical reading in the same horizon. For this purpose, we also need to have references to critical thinking because, as was mentioned above, critical reading roots in critical thinking. 1. 1. Statement of the problem For the improvement of critical reading, instructors should teach a variety of strategies that research has shown to be effective, like: generating questions and answering them, writing summaries, writing elaborations and using organizing strategies. The preceding strategies already seem to have been taken into account by Iranian teachers and learners. However, a potential problem in applying the mentioned strategies in reading comprehension can be the absence of meta-cognitive awareness about them. Hence, the researcher assumes that a set of meta-cognitive strategies can strengthen the above line of activity and foster the progress of critical reading. 1. 2. Research Question Is there any significant relationship between metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and critical reading ability? 3. Statement of the hypothesis The null hypothesis underlying this proposal is that there is not any significant relationship between meta-cognitive awareness of reading strategies and critical reading ability. 2. Method 2. 1. Participants A community sample of 130 male and female participated in this study in the second semester of 2010 majoring in English language literature and translation in Qom Islamic Azad University. They were all in their third and forth year. These students were asked if they would volunteer to participate in the study. Out of 130 participants who completed the questionnaires and tests, about 113 participants were accepted to participate in the study. 2. 2. Measure and Procedure The researchers visited the classes to administer one questionnaire and two tests. A total of 130 students were instructed to answer the proficiency test in one session and to the critical reading test and MARSI questionnaire at a later session. Students rated the items of MARSI, using a 5-point likert-type scale ranging from 1 (I never do this) to 5 (I always do this). From this population, some students were eliminated because they had not properly completed their questionnaires. The general proficiency test (Nelson test, 300 B) comprised 50 multiple-choice and vocabulary items. The total score of the test was 50 and one point was assigned to each correct answer. The critical reading comprehension test consisted of four passages with 4 or 5 multiple-choice items for each passage. So the 20 items were scored by one point for each correct answer. Then the score for all items were added and an ultimate score was calculated. The range of scores for this test was between 9 to 18. For scoring the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory, the procedure proposed by Mokhtari Richad (2002) was used. A score was assigned to each answer which ranged from 1 to 5: never or almost never=1, occasionally=2, sometimes=3, usually=4, always=5. Then the scores for all items were added up and an ultimate score was calculated. The range of scores for this scale was between 46 to 146. 3. Data analysis To carry out the statistical analysis of the study, several statistical techniques were utilized: to calculate the reliability of the Nelson test, the Cronbach alpha (a) formula was utilized. In order to estimate the reliability of the critical reading comprehension test, the Cronbach alpha (a) formula was utilized. Considering the point that the participants will be assigned interval scores both for their meta-cognitive awareness and critical reading ability, the statistical analysis was Pearsons product Moment Coefficient of Correlation. Also, the reliability index of the translated version of MARSI was assessed by applying Cronbach alpha (a) formula. After administrating the instruments with the main subjects of the study and correcting the papers, the ultimate scores on critical reading comprehension test and MARSI were calculated and entered into SPSS. 3. Results In order to be certain of the homogeneity of the participants of the study in terms of language proficiency, a general language proficiency test (Nelson test) was utilized. The test was extracted from Nelson English language tests by W.S. Flower and Norman Goe (1976). It composed of 50 multiple choice grammar and vocabulary items. Through the pilot study, the reliability of the Nelson test was estimated and the following result was achieved: Table of reliability statisticsof the Language Proficiency Test (Nelson) Cronbachs Alpha N of Items .899 50 As it is noticed, the reliability of the Nelson test was estimated as .89 through the pilot study among 42 students, so the test enjoyed the acceptable reliability. The present study, also used a new self report measure, the Meta cognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) (Mokhtari Richard, 2002), which is designed to assess adolescent and adult readers awareness and perceived use of reading strategies while reading materials. According to the author of MARSI, the major purposes of developing of this inventory were to devise an instrument that would permit one to assess the degree to which a student is or is not aware of the various processes involved in reading and to make it possible to learn about the goals and intentions he or she holds with coping with reading tasks. As a result of employing this inventory, the second statistical procedure was to estimate the reliability of the translated version of Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) administered to the subjects in the pilot study. Table of reliability statistics of the translated version of MARSI Cronbachs Alpha N of Items .799 30 According to table 4. 2., the reliability index of the students answers to the MARSI, assessed by applying the Cronbach alpha (a) formula, was 0.79. In order to assess the participants ability in reading critically, a test of reading comprehension, extracted from a model TOEFL, was applied. The reliability of this test administered to the subjects in the pilot study was estimated to be: Table of reliability statistics of critical reading comprehension test Cronbachs Alpha N of Items .748 18 It is necessary to add that in order to validate the critical reading comprehension test, basically four steps were taken such as checking the content validity, face validity, criterion related validity, and construct validity. The procedure for each step can be found in the following in details. The test was compiled according to the recommendation of Alderson and Urquhart (1984). Four different texts were selected. The texts were found from among the materials suggested for preparation of language learners for TOEFL test. Of course it was evident that not any passage could qualify: the passages had to be of an independent entity and understandable without a larger context. However, the main principle in text selection was to find text types that Iranian students of English were likely to read critically. I also consulted my supervisor to ensure the content validity of the passages and also to get confident that the questions could not be answered without reading the passages critically. The texts found were also sent to my advisor to make sure if there were any specific issues to be reconsidered. At the end of each passage, four or five questions were asked. Answering to the questions would be almost impossible without reading the test critically. The text chosen represente d the following text types: a scientific text from a field relevant to Chemistry; a text containing materials about body language and communication; a passage about the sinking of the luxurious ship, Titanic ; a biographical passage about an influential citizen of the United States, John Muir. In addition to improving the test items through item analysis (item facility, item discrimination and choice distribution), the face validity of the test was examined in qualitative terms. The students in the pilot study were asked to state their reasons for estimating the reading test as being critical or not. The comments (40 students) were rather divided. Some disliked the test but many of them liked it. Those who liked it wrote that it required imagination, and cleverness and a few compared taking the reading test with doing philosophical reasoning. Those who disliked the test mostly argued that it required to test other abilities besides language proficiency (e. g. imagination). Some complained that the test was too difficult and that they could mainly perceive the structure of the sentences. For criterion related validity, the researcher followed the same procedure as Assar (2008). With the help of the Nelson language proficiency test and by running correlation between these sc ores and those obtained from the improved reading test, among 32 students who participated in the pilot study, the concurrent validity of the test was established with an index of 0.71. Finally the critical reading test was construct-validated. To this end, the researcher took a process oriented approach following the picture depicted by Hirano (2008) and devised a questionnaire based on the discussed issues found in the literature on critical thinking and reading. The questionnaire was piloted among 40 students. First, they took the critical reading comprehension test, and immediately after they were asked to answer the questions in the questionnaire. Through a frequency count, it was discovered that the test had led to a critical reading successfully. The following table shows the result of the students answers to the fifteen questions in the devised questionnaire by the researcher based on the discussed issues found in the literature on critical thinking and reading. The results in the Mean column show the average score for each of the fifteen questions calculated based on a liker scale for each question ranging from 0 to 3. Table of reliability statistics for the reliability of critical reading questionnaire Cronbachs Alpha N of Items .624 15 It is necessary to mention that after the reliability of the questionnaire for process validation of the reading comprehension test was calculated, the researcher tried to revise some of the questions. It is, therefore, hoped that further studies through the revised questionnaire will provide more reliable results. Finally we come to the research question, which was concerned with relationship between metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and critical reading ability of the students. To investigate this question, the Pearson product correlation coefficient was run. The result of statistics is presented in the following table: According to the above table, correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. By using Pearson product correlation coefficient formula, the correlation between the two variables was estimated as .70. That is, there is a significant relationship between metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (MARSI) and critical reading ability. The results have been illustrated in the following scatter plot graph: Graph/Scatter plot for Correlation coefficient between critical reading ability and meta-cognitive awareness of reading strategies The above scatter plot illustrates the correlation coefficient between critical reading ability and meta-cognitive awareness of reading strategies including 113 subjects. Variable 1 (Y axis) is related to meta-cognitive awareness of reading strategies in an interval scale up to 130; variable 2 (X axis) is related to critical reading ability in an interval scale from zero up to 20. 4. Discussion This study was an attempt to investigate the relationship between metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (MARSI) and critical reading ability of Iranian students majoring in fields of English translation and literature. The statistical results proved that there is a significant relationship between the two variables of metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and critical reading ability. So the present study has found evidence that good and poor students are significantly different in their awareness and perceived use of metacognitive strategies. That is, the more a student knows about how he learns, the better learner he will be. Therefore, helping students to be more aware of their metacognitive reading strategies plays an important role in not only developing their critical reading ability but also in their general reading comprehension ability. The results of this study can be compared and contrasted with those of other researchers. For instance, findings of the present study are in congruity with the study conducted by Parson (2002) whose major purpose of his study was to investigate the strength of the relationship between the use of metacognitive strategies and critical reading ability of the students. It was conducted, specifically, to test the effectiveness of a teaching procedure designed to improve critical reading ability by training students in metacognintive strategies. He discovered that the students who were instructed with this metacognitive training package (questioning, summarizing, predicting and speculating on the authors intended tone and purpose) should become more aware of their own mental processes and will demonstrate not only increased critical reading ability, but also increased general comprehension ability. Also, qualitative improvement noted in subjects strategy use provided sufficient evidence fo r further study into the effectiveness of this training procedure. Furthermore, the findings could indirectly support Icmezs (2009) findings who suggests that in a critical reading course, developing a competence in critical reading skills evokes curiosity and the novelty essential for students with high levels of proficiency. Finally, we can conclude that our findings here is in line with what Ajideh (2009) suggests, that poor readers in general lack effective metacognitive strategies and have little awareness on how to approach to reading. They also have deficiencies in the use of metacognitive strategies to monitor for their understanding of texts. In contrast, successful L2 readers know how to use appropriate strategies to enhance text comprehension. 5. Conclusion As mentioned previously, among the tools that students use to learn a second language, learning strategies have been given a crucial role in all academic studies. Language learning strategies have been known as a factor that differentiates successful language learning from unsuccessful language learning. In recent years, there has been an increasing awareness of the necessity to examine human personality in order to find solutions to the perplexing problems in language learning. It is evident that a student uses language learning strategies while he is under the influence of many linguistic, cognitive, and affective factors. Thus, such an intertwined network can provide an answer to the wide individual differences within the classroom. Also, the ability to critically analyze written materials has long been recognized as being crucial to the educational process. In this study, it has been tried to explore the relationship between metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and critical reading ability of the students. With respect to the research question, it was found that when the students show more metacognitive awareness of strategies, they can read more critically and therefore it is more probable that they score higher on reading comprehension test. Based on the results, it can be concluded that there is a meaningful relationship between the students metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and their performance on critical reading comprehension test. Therefore, metacognitive strategies could provide the missing link between cognitive processes and critical reading ability. Metacognition refers to ones awareness of and control over his/her own mental processes (Brown, 2007). Consequently, it is worth mentioning that the relationship demonstrated here is only part of a complex picture, which reveals just some of the factors operating in mind of our students that warrant investigation. It should be mentioned that language learners strategies and their effect in the process of learning is a highly complex issue. Therefore, metacognitive strategy awareness may not be just the only aspect of this achievement in learning; rather, we need to investigate other types of language learning strategies and look at what helps the students to increase their ability in achieving the best results. 6. Implications The present study has found evidence which supports previous research findings that demonstrated that good and poor students are significantly different in their awareness and perceived use of metacognitive strategies. That is, the more a student knows about how he learns, the better learner he will be. Therefore, helping students to be more aware of their metacognitive reading strategies plays an important role in not only developing their critical reading ability but also in their general reading comprehension ability. So based on the above results, the finding of the study can have implications for teachers in reading classes. To be more specific, training good readers means more than just improving their knowledge about language structure and general study skills, and it needs raising their awareness of metacognitive strategies for critical reading. Also the results in this study may have implications for reading comprehension assessment. As mentioned before, critical reading skills are essential for the students with high level of proficiency. That is the higher the level of proficiency, the higher the ability for critical reading. Therefore, one of the factors to be included in the assessment of language proficiency can be the ability to read critically especially at higher level of proficiency.

Julius Ceasar Essay -- Biography Biographies Bio

Julius Ceaser was the Roman general and statesman, who laid the foundations of the Roman imperial system. Born in Rome on July 12 or 13, 100 BC, Caesar belonged to the prestigious Julian clan; yet from early childhood he knew controversy. His uncle by marriage was Gaius Marius, leader of the populares. This party supported agrarian reform and was opposed by the reactionary optimates, a senatorial faction. Marius was seven times consul , and the last year he held office, just before his death in 86 BC, he exacted a terrifying toll on the optimates. At the same time he saw to it that Caesar was appointed flamen dialis, one of an archaic priesthood with no power. This identified him with his uncle's extremist politics, and his marriage in 84 BC to Cornelia, the daughter of Marius's associate, Cinna, further confirmed him as a radical. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Marius's enemy and leader of the optimates, was made dictator in 82 BC, he issued a list of enemies to be executed. Although Caesar was not harmed, he was ordered by Sulla to divorce Cornelia. Refusing that order, he found it prude nt to leave Rome. He did not return to the city until 78 BC, after Sulla's resignation. Caesar was now 22 years old. Unable to gain office, he left Rome again and went to Rhodes, where he studied rhetoric; he returned to Rome in 73 BC, a very persuasive speaker. The year before, while still absent, he had been elected to the pontificate, an important college of Roman priests. In 71 BC Pompey the Great, who had earned his epithet in service under Sulla, returned to Rome, having defeated the rebellious populares general Sertorius in Spain. At the same time Marcus Crassus, a rich patrician, suppressed in Italy the slave revolt led by Spartacus. Pompey and Crassus both ran for the consulship—an office held by two men—in 70 BC. Pompey, who by this time had changed sides, was technically ineligible, but with Caesar's help he won the office. Crassus became the other consul. In 69 BC, Caesar was elected quaestor and in 65 BC curule aedile, gaining great popularity for his excessive gladiatorial games. To pay for these, he borrowed money from Crassus. This united the two men, who also found common cause with Pompey. When Caesar returned to Rome in 60 BC after a year as governor of Spain, he joined forces with Crassus and Pompey in a three way alliance known as the First Triumv... ... violated, she was maligned by gossips, and Caesar then divorced her, telling the Senate that Caesar's wife must be above suspicion. His next marriage which was in 59 b.c. was to Calpurnia and was politically motivated. Since Caesar had no male heirs, he stipulated in his will that his grandnephew, Octavius, become his successor. It was Octavius who became Rome's first emperor under the name of Augustus. Caesar was a gifted writer, with a clear and simple style. His De Bello Gallico which means On the Gallic Wars in english, in which he described Gaul and his Gallic campaigns, is a major source of information about the early Celtic and Germanic tribes. Scholarly opinion of Caesar's accomplishments is divided. Some regard him as an unscrupulous tyrant, with an insatiable lust for power, and blame him for the demise of the Roman Republic. Others, admitting that he could be ruthless, insist that the Republic had already been destroyed. They maintain that to save the Roman world from chaos a new type of government had to be created. In fact, Caesar's reforms did stabilize the Mediterranean world. Among ancient military commanders, he may be second only to Alexander the Great.

The Capitalist System Essays -- Economic System, Amoral Capitalist Sys

While capitalism is prevailing in the modern society, the issue on whether an amoral profit driven capitalist system is good for the society or not has been raised. Some believe that an amoral capitalist system is the best way to organize individuals together to serve the society. However, others argue that a amoral capitalist system will harm the society instead of benefit it. In this essay, I will be presenting the view of two neoclassical economists, Ricky Griffin and Adam Smith, who support the idea on the amoral capitalism is good for the society. I will also discuss the opposing view presented by Arthur Miller that suggests a profit drive, amoral capitalist system will do harm to a society . Furthermore, I am going to compare and contrast the two view and concluded with Miller’s view Capitalism encourages business men to make profitable amoral decisions will not benefit our society. While Griffin, Smith and Miller are holding two significantly different views, they both agree on capitalism is an amoral system. According to Griffin, profit is the only incentive for any business to operate under a capitalist system. Smith, father of capitalism, shows his understanding of amoral capitalism by saying, â€Å"We address our self, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but to their advantages. † (Smith 119) This quote clearly illustrates that people would act out of their own interest instead of considering others under capitalism. Further, Miller compare this amoral capitalism with uncivilized animals when the character, Christ, says â€Å"This is a land of great big dogs, you don’s love a man here, out eat him! ...the world is that way...This is a zoo, a zoo!† (Miller p81) Although ... ... still being debating. I believe capitalism forces business men to make profitable amoral decisions may not benefit our society at all. However, maybe Smith is also correct on capitalism is the best way to serve the society before other solutions appear. And with many evidences from different countries, I have to agree with Griffin and Smith that capitalism is efficient. However, I would only describe capitalism as an insensitive, bloody, efficiently machine that does not have feel and moral. The core of capitalism is still profit driven, materialistic, and money. â€Å"money money money money, when you said it long enough it doesn’t mean anything.†(Miller p73) How important is efficiency and profits, when it does not bring joy and happiness to our society. How can we be well off without compassion, moral value, sympathy and all that feeling that make us as human being.

Essay examples --

Personality is seen to be the characteristic thought, emotional and behavioural patterns of an individual combined with the psychological mechanisms which cause these patterns. Personality can be looked at under two sub-headings. These are nomothetic and idiographic. Nomothetic approaches deal with general rules and everyone is described on the same set of traits whereas idiographic approaches deal with unique aspects of personality and suggest that people form different personalities based on their experiences. There are four approaches to the study of human personality: trait, psychodynamic, humanistic-existential and social cognitive. The trait theory is a nomothetic approach while the other three theories are ideographic approaches. Each different theory has its own way of measuring personality. As with other areas of psychology, it’s difficult to be certain about which approach measures personality the most accurately because the mind cannot be examined easily. Personality is subjective. To one person someone may seem simply introverted but to another they may seem psychotic. Different characteristics also overlap to create one overall person and inner desires are hidden in the subconscious. This is what makes studying personality so difficult. Although there are four approaches this essay will briefly look at only two of these approaches to show why so many different theories are required through the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. One of the approaches looked at will be the nomothetic trait theory approach and the other will be the ideographical psychodynamic approach. Trait approach Allport and Odbert (1936) found that there were 17,953 different words in the English dictionary that could be ... ...e way humans interact with other people or with the world, it more focuses on what people don’t do rather than what they actually do. Conclusion Both the trait theory approach and the psychodynamic approach take completely different stances on what personality is. Although they are not mentioned, the other approaches do this as well. The trait theory attempts to categorise people’s personality and work out correlations between each of the different traits whereas the psychodynamic approach attempts to focus more on the unconscious part of the mind and what the individual secretly desires rather than what they actually do. It is because of these differences that there needs to be more than one approach. Personality is too complex to only have one way of looking at it, there needs to be different theories to highlight different parts of the mind and how it works. Essay examples -- Personality is seen to be the characteristic thought, emotional and behavioural patterns of an individual combined with the psychological mechanisms which cause these patterns. Personality can be looked at under two sub-headings. These are nomothetic and idiographic. Nomothetic approaches deal with general rules and everyone is described on the same set of traits whereas idiographic approaches deal with unique aspects of personality and suggest that people form different personalities based on their experiences. There are four approaches to the study of human personality: trait, psychodynamic, humanistic-existential and social cognitive. The trait theory is a nomothetic approach while the other three theories are ideographic approaches. Each different theory has its own way of measuring personality. As with other areas of psychology, it’s difficult to be certain about which approach measures personality the most accurately because the mind cannot be examined easily. Personality is subjective. To one person someone may seem simply introverted but to another they may seem psychotic. Different characteristics also overlap to create one overall person and inner desires are hidden in the subconscious. This is what makes studying personality so difficult. Although there are four approaches this essay will briefly look at only two of these approaches to show why so many different theories are required through the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. One of the approaches looked at will be the nomothetic trait theory approach and the other will be the ideographical psychodynamic approach. Trait approach Allport and Odbert (1936) found that there were 17,953 different words in the English dictionary that could be ... ...e way humans interact with other people or with the world, it more focuses on what people don’t do rather than what they actually do. Conclusion Both the trait theory approach and the psychodynamic approach take completely different stances on what personality is. Although they are not mentioned, the other approaches do this as well. The trait theory attempts to categorise people’s personality and work out correlations between each of the different traits whereas the psychodynamic approach attempts to focus more on the unconscious part of the mind and what the individual secretly desires rather than what they actually do. It is because of these differences that there needs to be more than one approach. Personality is too complex to only have one way of looking at it, there needs to be different theories to highlight different parts of the mind and how it works.

Hardy Winebergg Questions

Genetics test Week 31 Hardy Weinberg 1. If the frequency of allele p in a certain population is 0. 78, what is the frequency of allele q? (1) 2. If the frequency of recessive homozygotes for a particular gene within a population is 0. 36, what is the frequency of the recessive allele? (1) 3. What does the â€Å"2pq† part of the equation represent? (1) The peppered moth Biston betularia showed an increase in melanic (dark) forms during the industrial revolution. In most polluted areas of the UK the melanic form became the most common.Moth colour is determined by one single locus, and the melanic form is the dominant allele, with the paler form being the recessive allele. In one study of a heavily polluted area near Birmingham, Kettlewell (1956) observed a frequency of 87% melanic peppered moths. 4. What is the frequency of recessive homozygotes? (1) a) 0. 87 b) 0. 76 c) 0. 93 d) 0. 13 e) 0. 36 5. What is the frequency q of the recessive allele? (1) a) 0. 87 b) 0. 76 c) 0. 93 d) 0. 13 e) 0. 36 6. What is the frequency of heterozygotes? (1) a) 0. 36 b) 0. 46 ) 0. 56 d) 0. 66 e) 0. 76 7. List three assumptions of the Hardy Weinberg model (3) 8. In a given population, only the â€Å"A† and â€Å"B† alleles are present in the ABO system; there are no individuals with type â€Å"O† blood or with O alleles in this particular population. If 150 people have type A blood, 100 have type AB blood, and 50 have type B blood, what is the frequency of allele B in this population? (2) a) 0. 25 b) 0. 33 c) 0. 5 d) 0. 66 e) 0. 75 At the PGI locus in the Ojibway pond population of Daphnia, Spitze et al. ound two alleles, S and S-, and the number of individuals with each genotype was 42 SS, 48 SS-, and 38 S-S-. 9. What is the frequency of allele S? (2) a) 0. 48 b) 0. 50 c) 0. 52 d) 0. 54 e) 0. 56 10. Using the S and S- allele frequencies, what would the expected frequency of heterozygotes (SS-) be, if the population was in Hardy Weinberg equilibrium? (1) a) 0. 48 b) 0. 5 c) 0. 52 d) 0. 54 e) 0. 56 11. Is this population in Hardy Weinberg equilibrium? Explain your answer. (1)

Digital Fortress Chapter 88-93

Chapter 88 The headlight of Becker's Vespa threw stark shadows on the walls of the narrow passageways. He struggled with the gear shift and roared between the whitewashed buildings, giving the inhabitants of Santa Cruz an early wake-up call this Sunday morning. It had been less than thirty minutes since Becker's escape from the airport. He'd been on the run ever since, his mind grappling with endless questions: Who's trying to kill me? What's so special about this ring? Where is the NSA jet? He thought of Megan dead in the stall, and the nausea crept back. Becker had hoped to cut directly across the barrio and exit on the other side, but Santa Cruz was a bewildering labyrinth of alleyways. It was peppered with false starts and dead ends. Becker quickly became disoriented. He looked up for the tower of the Giralda to get his bearings, but the surrounding walls were so high he could see nothing except a thin slit of breaking dawn above him. Becker wondered where the man in wire-rim glasses was; he knew better than to think the assailant had given up. The killer probably was after him on foot. Becker struggled to maneuver his Vespa around tight corners. The sputtering of the engine echoed up and down the alleys. Becker knew he was an easy target in the silence of Santa Cruz. At this point, all he had in his favor was speed. Got to get to the other side! After a long series of turns and straightaways, Becker skidded into a three-way intersection marked Esquina de los Reyes. He knew he was in trouble-he had been there already. As he stood straddling the idling bike, trying to decide which way to turn, the engine sputtered to a stop. The gas gauge read vacio. As if on cue, a shadow appeared down an alley on his left. The human mind is the fastest computer in existence. In the next fraction of a second, Becker's mind registered the shape of the man's glasses, searched his memory for a match, found one, registered danger, and requested a decision. He got one. He dropped the useless bike and took off at a full sprint. Unfortunately for Becker, Hulohot was now on solid ground rather than in a lurching taxi. He calmly raised his weapon and fired. The bullet caught Becker in the side just as he stumbled around the corner out of range. He took five or six strides before the sensation began to register. At first it felt like a muscle pull, just above the hip. Then it turned to a warm tingling. When Becker saw the blood, he knew. There was no pain, no pain anywhere, just a headlong race through the winding maze of Santa Cruz. Hulohot dashed after his quarry. He had been tempted to hit Becker in the head, but he was a professional; he played the odds. Becker was a moving target, and aiming at his midsection provided the greatest margin of error both vertically and horizontally. The odds had paid off. Becker had shifted at the last instant, and rather than missing his head, Hulohot had caught a piece of his side. Although he knew the bullet had barely grazed Becker and would do no lasting damage, the shot had served its purpose. Contact had been made. The prey had been touched by death. It was a whole new game. Becker raced forward blindly. Turning. Winding. Staying out of the straightaways. The footsteps behind him seemed relentless. Becker's mind was blank. Blank to everything-where he was, who was chasing him-all that was left was instinct, self preservation, no pain, only fear, and raw energy. A shot exploded against the azulejo tile behind him. Shards of glass sprayed across the back of his neck. He stumbled left, into another alley. He heard himself call for help, but except for the sound of footsteps and strained breathing, the morning air remained deathly still. Becker's side was burning now. He feared he was leaving a crimson trail on the whitewashed walks. He searched everywhere for an open door, an open gate, any escape from the suffocating canyons. Nothing. The walkway narrowed. â€Å"Socorro!† Becker's voice was barely audible. â€Å"Help!† The walls grew closer on each side. The walkway curved. Becker searched for an intersection, a tributary, any way out. The passageway narrowed. Locked doors. Narrowing. Locked gates. The footsteps were closing. He was in a straightaway, and suddenly the alley began to slope upward. Steeper. Becker felt his legs straining. He was slowing. And then he was there. Like a freeway that had run out of funding, the alley just stopped. There was a high wall, a wooden bench, and nothing else. No escape. Becker looked up three stories to the top of the building and then spun and started back down the long alley, but he had only taken a few steps before he stopped short. At the foot of the inclined straightaway, a figure appeared. The man moved toward Becker with a measured determination. In his hand, a gun glinted in the early morning sun. Becker felt a sudden lucidity as he backed up toward the wall. The pain in his side suddenly registered. He touched the spot and looked down. There was blood smeared across his fingers and across Ensei Tankado's golden ring. He felt dizzy. He stared at the engraved band, puzzled. He'd forgotten he was wearing it. He'd forgotten why he had come to Seville. He looked up at the figure approaching. He looked down at the ring. Was this why Megan had died? Was this why he would die? The shadow advanced up the inclined passageway. Becker saw walls on all sides-a dead end behind him. A few gated entryways between them, but it was too late to call for help. Becker pressed his back against the dead end. Suddenly he could feel every piece of grit beneath the soles of his shoes, every bump in the stucco wall behind him. His mind was reeling backward, his childhood, his parents†¦ Susan. Oh, God†¦ Susan. For the first time since he was a kid, Becker prayed. He did not pray for deliverance from death; he did not believe in miracles. Instead he prayed that the woman he left behind would find strength, that she would know without a doubt that she had been loved. He closed his eyes. The memories came like a torrent. They were not memories of department meetings, university business, and the things that made up 90 percent of his life; they were memories of her. Simple memories: teaching her to use chopsticks, sailing on Cape Cod. I love you, he thought. Know that†¦ forever. It was as if every defense, every facade, every insecure exaggeration of his life had been stripped away. He was standing naked-flesh and bones before God. I am a man, he thought. And in a moment of irony he thought, A man without wax. He stood, eyes closed, as the man in wire-rim glasses drew nearer. Somewhere nearby, a bell began to toll. Becker waited in darkness, for the sound that would end his life. Chapter 89 The morning sun was just breaking over the Seville rooftops and shining down into the canyons below. The bells atop the Giralda cried out for sunrise mass. This was the moment inhabitants had all been waiting for. Everywhere in the ancient barrio, gates opened and families poured into the alleyways. Like lifeblood through the veins of old Santa Cruz, they coursed toward the heart of their pueblo, toward the core of their history, toward their God, their shrine, their cathedral. Somewhere in Becker's mind, a bell was tolling. Am I dead? Almost reluctantly, he opened his eyes and squinted into the first rays of sunlight. He knew exactly where he was. He leveled his gaze and searched the alley for his assailant. But the man in wire-rims was not there. Instead, there were others. Spanish families, in their finest clothes, stepping from their gated portals into the alleyways, talking, laughing. At the bottom of the alley, hidden from Becker's view, Hulohot cursed in frustration. At first there had been only a single couple separating him from his quarry. Hulohot had been certain they would leave. But the sound of the bells kept reverberating down the alley, drawing others from their homes. A second couple, with children. They greeted each another. Talking, laughing, kissing three times on the cheek. Another group appeared, and Hulohot could no longer see his prey. Now, in a boiling rage, he raced into the quickly growing crowd. He had to get to David Becker! The killer fought his way toward the end of the alley. He found himself momentarily lost in a sea of bodies-coats and ties, black dresses, lace mantles over hunched women. They all seemed oblivious to Hulohot's presence; they strolled casually, all in black, shuffling, moving as one, blocking his way. Hulohot dug his way through the crowd and dashed up the alley into the dead end, his weapon raised. Then he let out a muted, inhuman scream. David Becker was gone. Becker stumbled and sidestepped his way through the crowd. Follow the crowd, he thought. They know the way out. He cut right at the intersection and the alley widened. Everywhere gates were opening and people were pouring out. The pealing of the bells grew louder. Becker's side was still burning, but he sensed the bleeding had stopped. He raced on. Somewhere behind him, closing fast, was a man with a gun. Becker ducked in and out of the groups of churchgoers and tried to keep his head down. It was not much farther. He could sense it. The crowd had thickened. The alley had widened. They were no longer in a little tributary, this was the main river. As he rounded a bend, Becker suddenly saw it, rising before them-the cathedral and Giralda tower. The bells were deafening, the reverberations trapped in the high-walled plaza. The crowds converged, everyone in black, pushing across the square toward the gaping doors of the Seville Cathedral. Becker tried to break away toward Mateus Gago, but he was trapped. He was shoulder to shoulder, heel to toe with the shoving throngs. The Spaniards had always had a different idea of closeness than the rest of the world. Becker was wedged between two heavyset women, both with their eyes closed, letting the crowd carry them. They mumbled prayers to themselves and clutched rosary beads in their fingers. As the crowd closed on the enormous stone structure, Becker tried to cut left again, but the current was stronger now. The anticipation, the pushing and shoving, the blind, mumbled prayers. He turned into the crowd, trying to fight backward against the eager throngs. It was impossible, like swimming upstream in a mile-deep river. He turned. The cathedral doors loomed before him-like the opening to some dark carnival ride he wished he hadn't taken. David Becker suddenly realized he was going to church. Chapter 90 The Crypto sirens were blaring. Strathmore had no idea how long Susan had been gone. He sat alone in the shadows, the drone of TRANSLTR calling to him. You're a survivor†¦ you're a survivor†¦. Yes, he thought. I'm a survivor-but survival is nothing without honor. I'd rather die than live in the shadow of disgrace. And disgrace was what was waiting for him. He had kept information from the director. He had sent a virus into the nation's most secure computer. There was no doubt he would be hung out to dry. His intentions had been patriotic, but nothing had gone as he'd planned. There had been death and treachery. There would be trials, accusations, public outrage. He had served his country with honor and integrity for so many years, he couldn't allow it to end this way. I'm a survivor, he thought. You're a liar, his own thoughts replied. It was true. He was a liar. There were people he hadn't been honest with. Susan Fletcher was one of them. There were so many things he hadn't told her-things he was now desperately ashamed of. For years she'd been his illusion, his living fantasy. He dreamed of her at night; he cried out for her in his sleep. He couldn't help it. She was as brilliant and as beautiful as any woman he could imagine. His wife had tried to be patient, but when she finally met Susan, she immediately lost hope. Bev Strathmore never blamed her husband for his feelings. She tried to endure the pain as long as possible, but recently it had become too much. She'd told him their marriage was ending; another woman's shadow was no place to spend the rest of her life. Gradually the sirens lifted Strathmore from his daze. His analytical powers searched for any way out. His mind reluctantly confirmed what his heart had suspected. There was only one true escape, only one solution. Strathmore gazed down at the keyboard and began typing. He didn't bother to turn the monitor so he could see it. His fingers pecked out the words slowly and decisively. Dearest friends, I am taking my life today†¦ This way, no one would ever wonder. There would be no questions. There would be no accusations. He would spell out for the world what had happened. Many had died†¦ but there was still one life to take. Chapter 91 In a cathedral, it is always night. The warmth of the day turns to damp coolness. The traffic is silenced behind thick granite walls. No number of candelabras can illuminate the vast darkness overhead. Shadows fall everywhere. There's only the stained glass, high above, filtering the ugliness of the outside world into rays of muted reds and blues. The Seville Cathedral, like all great cathedrals of Europe, is laid out in the shape of a cross. The sanctuary and altar are located just above the midpoint and open downward onto the main sanctuary. Wooden pews fill the vertical axis, a staggering 113 yards from the altar to the base of the cross. To the left and right of the altar, the transept of the cross houses confessionals, sacred tombs, and additional seating. Becker found himself wedged in the middle of a long pew about halfway back. Overhead, in the dizzying empty space, a silver censer the size of a refrigerator swung enormous arcs on a frayed rope, leaving a trail of frankincense. The bells of the Giralda kept ringing, sending low rumbling shock waves through the stone. Becker lowered his gaze to the gilded wall behind the altar. He had a lot to be thankful for. He was breathing. He was alive. It was a miracle. As the priest prepared to give the opening prayer, Becker checked his side. There was a red stain on his shirt, but the bleeding had stopped. The wound was small, more of a laceration than a puncture. Becker tucked his shirt back in and craned his neck. Behind him, the doors were cranking shut. He knew if he'd been followed, he was now trapped. The Seville Cathedral had a single functional entrance, a design popularized in the days when churches were used as fortresses, a safe haven against Moorish invasion. With a single entrance, there was only one door to barricade. Now the single entrance had another function-it ensured all tourists entering the cathedral had purchased a ticket. The twenty-two-foot-high, gilded doors slammed with a decisive crash. Becker was sealed in the house of God. He closed his eyes and slid low in his pew. He was the only one in the building not dressed in black. Somewhere voices began to chant. Toward the back of the church, a figure moved slowly up the side aisle, keeping to the shadows. He had slipped in just before the doors closed. He smiled to himself. The hunt was getting interesting. Becker is here†¦ I can feel it. He moved methodically, one row at a time. Overhead the frankincense decanter swung its long, lazy arcs. A fine place to die, Hulohot thought. I hope I do as well. Becker knelt on the cold cathedral floor and ducked his head out of sight. The man seated next to him glared down-it was most irregular behavior in the house of God. â€Å"Enfermo,† Becker apologized. â€Å"Sick.† Becker knew he had to stay low. He had glimpsed a familiar silhouette moving up the side aisle. It's him! He's here! Despite being in the middle of an enormous congregation, Becker feared he was an easy target-his khaki blazer was like a roadside flare in the crowd of black. He considered removing it, but the white oxford shirt underneath was no better. Instead he huddled lower. The man beside him frowned. â€Å"Turista.† He grunted. Then he whispered, half sarcastically, â€Å"Llamo un medico? Shall I call a doctor?† Becker looked up at the old man's mole-ridden face. â€Å"No, gracias. Estoy bien.† The man gave him an angry look. â€Å"Pues sientate! Then sit down!† There were scattered shushes around them, and the old man bit his tongue and faced front. Becker closed his eyes and huddled lower, wondering how long the service would last. Becker, raised Protestant, had always had the impression Catholics were long-winded. He prayed it was true-as soon as the service ended, he would be forced to stand and let the others out. In khaki he was dead. Becker knew he had no choice at the moment. He simply knelt there on the cold stone floor of the great cathedral. Eventually, the old man lost interest. The congregation was standing now, singing a hymn. Becker stayed down. His legs were starting to cramp. There was no room to stretch them. Patience, he thought. Patience. He closed his eyes and took a deep breath. It felt like only minutes later that Becker felt someone kicking him. He looked up. The mole-faced man was standing to his right, waiting impatiently to leave the pew. Becker panicked. He wants to leave already? I'll have to stand up! Becker motioned for the man to step over him. The man could barely control his anger. He grabbed the tails of his black blazer, pulled them down in a huff, and leaned back to reveal the entire row of people waiting to leave. Becker looked left and saw that the woman who had been seated there was gone. The length of pew to his left was empty all the way to the center aisle. The service can't be over! It's impossible! We just got here! But when Becker saw the altar boy at the end of the row and the two single-file lines moving up the center aisle toward the altar, he knew what was happening. Communion. He groaned. The damn Spaniards do it first! Chapter 92 Susan climbed down the ladder into the sublevels. Thick steam was now boiling up around TRANSLTR's hull. The catwalks were wet with condensation. She almost fell, her flats providing very little traction. She wondered how much longer TRANSLTR would survive. The sirens continued their intermittent warning. The emergency lights spun in two-second intervals. Three stories below, the aux generators shook in a taxed whine. Susan knew somewhere at the bottom in the foggy dimness there was a circuit breaker. She sensed time was running out. Upstairs, Strathmore held the Beretta in his hand. He reread his note and laid it on the floor of the room where he was standing. What he was about to do was a cowardly act, there was no doubt. I'm a survivor, he thought. He thought of the virus in the NSA databank, he thought of David Becker in Spain, he thought of his plans for a back door. He had told so many lies. He was guilty of so much. He knew this was the only way to avoid accountability†¦ the only way to avoid the shame. Carefully he aimed the gun. Then he closed his eyes and pulled the trigger. Susan had only descended six flights when she heard the muffled shot. It was far off, barely audible over the generators. She had never heard a gunshot except on television, but she had no doubt what it was. She stopped short, the sound resounding in her ears. In a wave of horror, she feared the worst. She pictured the commander's dreams-the back door in Digital Fortress, the incredible coup it would have been. She pictured the virus in the databank, his failing marriage, that eerie nod he had given her. Her footing faltered. She spun on the landing, grappling for the banister. Commander! No! Susan was momentarily frozen, her mind blank. The echo of the gunshot seemed to drown out the chaos around her. Her mind told her to keep on going, but her legs refused. Commander! An instant later she found herself stumbling back up the stairs, entirely forgetting the danger around her. She ran blindly, slipping on the slick metal. Above her the humidity fell like rain. When she reached the ladder and began climbing, she felt herself lifted from below by a tremendous surge of steam that practically jettisoned her through the trapdoor. She rolled onto the Crypto floor and felt the cool air wash over her. Her white blouse clung to her body, soaked through. It was dark. Susan paused, trying to get her bearings. The sound of the gunshot was on endless loop in her head. Hot steam billowed up through the trapdoor like gases from a volcano about to explode. Susan cursed herself for leaving the Beretta with Strathmore. She had left it with him, hadn't she? Or was it in Node 3? As her eyes adjusted to the dark, she glanced toward the gaping hole in the Node 3 wall. The glow from the monitors was faint, but in the distance she could see Hale lying motionless on the floor where she'd left him. There was no sign of Strathmore. Terrified of what she'd find, she turned toward the commander's office. But as she began to move, something registered as strange. She backpedaled a few steps and peered into Node 3 again. In the soft light she could see Hale's arm. It was not at his side. He was no longer tied like a mummy. His arm was up over his head. He was sprawled backward on the floor. Had he gotten free? There was no movement. Hale was deathly still. Susan gazed up at Strathmore's workstation perched high on the wall. â€Å"Commander?† Silence. Tentatively she moved toward Node 3. There was an object in Hale's hand. It glimmered in the light of the monitors. Susan moved closer†¦ closer. Suddenly she could see what Hale was holding. It was the Beretta. Susan gasped. Following the arch of Hale's arm, her eyes moved to his face. What she saw was grotesque. Half of Greg Hale's head was soaked in blood. The dark stain had spread out across the carpet. Oh my God! Susan staggered backward. It wasn't the commander's shot she'd heard, it was Hale's! As if in a trance, Susan moved toward the body. Apparently, Hale had managed to free himself. The printer cables were piled on the floor beside him. I must have left the gun on the couch, she thought. The blood flowing through the hole in his skull looked black in the bluish light. On the floor beside Hale was a piece of paper. Susan went over unsteadily, and picked it up. It was a letter. Dearest friends, I am taking my life today in penance for the following sins†¦ In utter disbelief, Susan stared at the suicide note in her hand. She read slowly. It was surreal-so unlike Hale-a laundry list of crimes. He was admitting to everything-figuring out that NDAKOTA was a hoax, hiring a mercenary to kill Ensei Tankado and take the ring, pushing Phil Chartrukian, planning to sell Digital Fortress. Susan reached the final line. She was not prepared for what she read. The letter's final words delivered a numbing blow. Above all, I'm truly sorry about David Becker. Forgive me, I was blinded by ambition. As Susan stood trembling over Hale's body, the sound of running footsteps approached behind her. In slow motion, she turned. Strathmore appeared in the broken window, pale and out of breath. He stared down at Hale's body in apparent shock. â€Å"Oh my God!† he said. â€Å"What happened?† Chapter 93 Communion. Hulohot spotted Becker immediately. The khaki blazer was impossible to miss, particularly with the small bloodstain on one side. The jacket was moving up the center aisle in a sea of black. He must not know I'm here. Hulohot smiled. He's a dead man. He fanned the tiny metal contacts on his fingertips, eager to tell his American contact the good news. Soon, he thought, very soon. Like a predator moving downwind, Hulohot moved to the back of the church. Then he began his approach-straight up the center aisle. Hulohot was in no mood to track Becker through the crowds leaving the church. His quarry was trapped, a fortunate turn of events. Hulohot just needed a way to eliminate him quietly. His silencer, the best money could buy, emitted no more than a tiny spitting cough. That would be fine. As Hulohot closed on the khaki blazer, he was unaware of the quiet murmurs coming from those he was passing. The congregation could understand this man's excitement to receive the blessing of God, but nevertheless, there were strict rules of protocol-two lines, single file. Hulohot kept moving. He was closing quickly. He thumbed the revolver in his jacket pocket. The moment had arrived. David Becker had been exceptionally fortunate so far; there was no need to tempt fortune any further. The khaki blazer was only ten people ahead, facing front, head down. Hulohot rehearsed the kill in his mind. The image was clear-cutting in behind Becker, keeping the gun low and out of sight, firing two shots into Becker's back, Becker slumping, Hulohot catching him and helping him into a pew like a concerned friend. Then Hulohot would move quickly to the back of the church as if going for help. In the confusion, he would disappear before anyone knew what had happened. Five people. Four. Three. Hulohot fingered the gun in his pocket, keeping it low. He would fire from hip level upward into Becker's spine. That way the bullet would hit either the spine or a lung before finding the heart. Even if the bullet missed the heart, Becker would die. A punctured lung was fatal, maybe not in more medically advanced parts of the world, but in Spain, it was fatal. Two people†¦ one. And then Hulohot was there. Like a dancer performing a well-rehearsed move, he turned to his right. He laid his hand on the shoulder of the khaki blazer, aimed the gun, and†¦ fired. Two muffled spats. Instantly the body was rigid. Then it was falling. Hulohot caught his victim under the armpits. In a single motion, he swung the body into a pew before any bloodstains spread across his back. Nearby, people turned. Hulohot paid no heed-he would be gone in an instant. He groped the man's lifeless fingers for the ring. Nothing. He felt again. The fingers were bare. Hulohot spun the man around angrily. The horror was instantaneous. The face was not David Becker's. Rafael de la Maza, a banker from the suburbs of Seville, had died almost instantly. He was still clutching the 50,000 pesetas the strange American had paid him for a cheap black blazer.